Exploring the Applied Heart of the Church: The Retributive vs. Restorative Justice Perspectives on Punishment and Incarceration
Main Article Content
Keywords
Abstract
Mass incarceration is one of the key societal issues facing the US today. While numerous factors have contributed to this problem, a major one is the punitive approach of our criminal justice system. This paper examines the underlying justifications for our criminal justice system’s emphasis on punishment using Christian and dominant cultural frameworks. The primary objectives of this paper are: (1) to compare and contrast the core tenets and values of two distinct philosophical approaches to punishment - retribution and restoration - both of which are active within the US criminal justice system; (2) to explore how these two approaches align with biblical values of justice, grace, mercy, and atonement; and (3) to discuss practical implications for how Christian social work educators, scholars, and practitioners can advocate for criminal justice reform based on clear Christian convictions.
References
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Daly, K. (2013). The punishment debate in restorative justice. In J. Simon & R. Sparks (Eds.), The Sage handbook of punishment and society (pp. 356-374). Sage.
Dignan, J. (2005). Understanding victims and restorative justice. Open University Press.
Dolinko, D. (1991). Some thoughts about retributivism. Ethics, 101(3), 537-559. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2381468
Duce, A. R. (2012). A Christian approach to punishment. In S. McConville (Ed.), The use of punishment (pp. 23-54). Routledge. (Original work published in 2003).
Enns, P. K. (2016). Incarceration nation: How the United States became the most punitive democracy in the world. Cambridge University Press.
Gabbay, Z. D. (2005). Justifying restorative justice: A theoretical justification for the use of restorative justice practices. Journal of Dispute Resolution, 2, 349-397. https://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1495&context=jdr
Gorringe, T. (1996). God’s just vengeance: Crime, violence and the rhetoric of salvation. Cambridge University Press.
Grand Challenges for Social Work. (2021). Progress and plans for the Grand Challenges: An impact report at year 5 of the 10-year initiative. https://grandchallengesforsocialwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/GCSW-Impact-Report.pdf
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Hermann, D. H. J. (2017). Restorative justice and retributive justice: An opportunity for cooperation or an occasion for conflict in the search for justice. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 16(1), 71-103.
Johnstone, G. (2011). Restorative justice: Ideas, values, debates (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Lacey, N., & Pickard, H. (2015). To blame or to forgive? Reconciling punishment and forgiveness in criminal justice. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 35(4), 665-696. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqv012
Leary, J. S. (2017). A biblical critique of the U.S. Prison System. Journal of Christian Legal Thought, 7(2), 17-23. https://www.christianlegalsociety.org/sites/default/files/2018-06/CLSJournal_winter17_web%5B1%5D.pdf
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Marshall, T. F. (1999). Restorative justice: An overview. http://www.antoniocasella.eu/restorative/Marshall_1999-b.pdf
Materni, M. (2013). Criminal punishment and the pursuit of justice. https://hls.harvard.edu/content/uploads/2011/09/michele-materni-criminal-punishment.pdf
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Miller, R. J. (2021). Halfway home: Race, punishment, and the afterlife of mass incarceration. Little, Brown and Company.
Moore, M. S. (2010). Placing blame: A theory of the criminal law. Oxford University Press.
Morris, H. (1994). A paternalistic theory of punishment. In A. Duff & D. Garland (Eds.), A reader on punishment (pp. 92-111). Oxford University Press.
Murphy, J. G. (2007). Legal moralism and retribution revisited. Criminal Law and Philosophy, 1(1), 5-20. doi:10.1007/s11572-006-9000-3
National Association of Social Workers. (2021). Code of Ethics. https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English
New Revised Standard Version, Anglicised.(1989). National Council of Churches. http://www.ncccusa.org/newbtu/aboutnrs.html
Nozick, R. (1981). Philosophical explanations. Harvard University Press.
Nugent, W. R., Williams, M., & Umbreit, M. S. (2003). Participation in victim-offender mediation and the prevalence and severity of subsequent delinquent behavior: A meta-analysis. Utah Law Review, 1, 137-166. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.497.7446&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Payne, J. S. (2019, November 9). What MSW students learned from their denomination about mental illness [Workshop presentation]. North American Association of Christians in Social Work 69th Annual Meeting, Indianapolis, IN.
Payne, J. S. & Hays, K. (2016). A spectrum of belief: A qualitative exploration of candid discussions of clergy on mental health and healing. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 19(6), 600-612. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2016.1221916
Pettus-Davis, C. (2012). Reverse social work’s neglect of adults involved in the criminal justice system: The intersection and an agenda. Social Work Research, 36(1), 3-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svs036
Pettus-Davis, C., & Epperson, M. W. (2015). From mass incarceration to smart decarceration (Working Paper No. 4). American Academy of Social Work & Social Welfare, Grand Challenges for Social Work Initiative. https://aaswsw.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/From-Mass-Incarceration-to-Decarceration-3.24.15.pdf
Pettus-Davis, C., & Kennedy, S. (2018). Researching and responding to barriers to prisoner reentry: Early findings from a multi-state trial. Institute for Justice and Research Development. https://ijrd.csw.fsu.edu/sites/g/files/upcbnu1766/files/media/images/publication_pdfs/5Key_1st_Report_FINAL.pdf
Pfaff, J. (2017). Locked in: The true causes of mass incarceration and how to achieve real reform. Basic Books.
Prison Fellowship. (2019). A survey of Christian perceptions of incarceration and justice reform. Barna Group for Prison Fellowship. https://www.prisonfellowship.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Prison-Fellowship-Christian-Barna-Polling-Results-2019.pdf
Rice-Minus, H. (2020). What Christians think - and what the Bible says - about criminal justice reform. The Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention. https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/what-christians-think-and-what-the-bible-says-about-criminal-justice-reform/
Sarre, R., & Young, J. (2011). Christian approaches to the restorative justice movement: Observations on scripture and praxis. Contemporary Justice Review, 13(3), 345-355. DOI:10.1080/10282580.2011.589670
Schedler, G. (2011). Retributivism and fallible systems of punishment. Criminal Justice Ethics, 30(3), 240-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129X.2011.628829
Sliva, S. M., & Lambert, C. G. (2015). Restorative justice legislation in the American states: A statutory analysis of emerging legal doctrine. Journal of Policy Practice, 14, 77-95. https://njdc.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Restorative-Justice-Legislation-in-the-American-States-A-Statutory-Analysis-of-Emerging-Legal-Doctrine.pdf
Smith, P. J. (2005). A method for the madness: Restorative justice as a valid mode of punishment and an advancement of Catholic social thought. Journal of Catholic Legal Studies, 44(2), 433-459. https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/jcls/vol44/iss2/9/
Soltis, K. G. (2011). Mass incarceration and theological images of justice. Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics, 31(2), 113-130. 10.5840/jsce20113128
Stevenson, B. (2015). Just mercy: A story of justice and redemption. One World.
Strang, H., & Sherman, L. W. (2003). Repairing the harm: Victims and restorative justice. Utah Law Review, 1, 15-42. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Repairing-the-Harm%3A-Victims-and-Restorative-Justice-Strang-
Sherman/1ea2e2b9bad08ed8766ffac40f00913bfffa7e14
Strang, H. (2002). Repair or revenge: Victims and restorative justice. Clarendon Press.
Talbott, T. (1993). Punishment, forgiveness, and divine justice. Religious Studies, 29(2), 151-168. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20019603
U.S. Department of Justice. (n.d.) Our mission statement. https://www.justice.gov/about
Van Ness, D., & Strong, K. H. (1997). Restoring justice. Anderson.
van Prooijen, J-W. (2018). The moral punishment instinct: Perspectives on justice and morality. Oxford University Press.
Walen, A. (2015). Proof beyond a reasonable doubt; A balanced retributive account. Louisiana Law Review, 76(2), 355-446. https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol76/iss2/6
Walen, A. (2020). Retributive justice. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-retributive/#AppeRetrJust
Walmsley, R. (2015). World Prison Population List (12th ed.). World Prison Brief. Institute for Criminal Policy Research. https://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/wppl_12.pdf
Zehr, H. (2002). The little book of restorative justice. Good Books.
Zehr, H. (2003). Changing lenses: A new focus for crime and justice (3rd ed.). Herald Press. (Original work published in 1990).
Zehr, H. (2009). God’s justice - punishment or restoration? Zehr Institute for Restorative Justice. https://emu.edu/now/restorative-justice/2009/03/30/gods-justice-punishment-or-restoration/
Zehr Institute for Restorative Justice. (n.d.). Howard Zehr CV. https://zehr-institute.org/staff/howard-zehr/howard-zehr-cv/
Boers, A. P. (2008). Justice that heals: A biblical vision for victims and offenders. Wipf & Stock.
Braithwaite, J. (1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge University Press.
Braithwaite, J. (2002). Restorative justice and responsive regulation. Oxford University Press.
Carder, K. L. (2012). Resources for restorative justice. Center for Christian Ethics, Baylor University. https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/163080.pdf
Centre for Justice & Reconciliation. (n.d.). Lesson 1: What is restorative justice? http://restorativejustice.org/restorative-justice/about-restorative-justice/tutorial-intro-to-restorative-justice/lesson-1-what-is-restorative-justice/#sthash.biJbRndg.dpbs
Center for Social Development. (n.d.). Smart decarceration. https://csd.wustl.edu/items/decarceration/
Copeland, P., Jacob, D., Young, D., Grier, A., Kennedy, S., & Tripodi, S. (2018). Smart decarceration practice behaviors for social work competencies. Grand Challenges for Social Work. https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/voices.uchicago.edu/dist/d/2282/files/2019/04/Smart-Decarceration-Practice-Behaviors-for-Social-Work-Competencies.pdf
Daly, K. (2013). The punishment debate in restorative justice. In J. Simon & R. Sparks (Eds.), The Sage handbook of punishment and society (pp. 356-374). Sage.
Dignan, J. (2005). Understanding victims and restorative justice. Open University Press.
Dolinko, D. (1991). Some thoughts about retributivism. Ethics, 101(3), 537-559. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2381468
Duce, A. R. (2012). A Christian approach to punishment. In S. McConville (Ed.), The use of punishment (pp. 23-54). Routledge. (Original work published in 2003).
Enns, P. K. (2016). Incarceration nation: How the United States became the most punitive democracy in the world. Cambridge University Press.
Gabbay, Z. D. (2005). Justifying restorative justice: A theoretical justification for the use of restorative justice practices. Journal of Dispute Resolution, 2, 349-397. https://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1495&context=jdr
Gorringe, T. (1996). God’s just vengeance: Crime, violence and the rhetoric of salvation. Cambridge University Press.
Grand Challenges for Social Work. (2021). Progress and plans for the Grand Challenges: An impact report at year 5 of the 10-year initiative. https://grandchallengesforsocialwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/GCSW-Impact-Report.pdf
Grand Challenges for Social Work. (n.d.). History. https://grandchallengesforsocialwork.org/about/history/
Griffith, A. (2020). God’s law and order: The politics of punishment in evangelical America. Harvard University Press.
Hermann, D. H. J. (2017). Restorative justice and retributive justice: An opportunity for cooperation or an occasion for conflict in the search for justice. Seattle Journal for Social Justice, 16(1), 71-103.
Johnstone, G. (2011). Restorative justice: Ideas, values, debates (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Lacey, N., & Pickard, H. (2015). To blame or to forgive? Reconciling punishment and forgiveness in criminal justice. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 35(4), 665-696. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqv012
Leary, J. S. (2017). A biblical critique of the U.S. Prison System. Journal of Christian Legal Thought, 7(2), 17-23. https://www.christianlegalsociety.org/sites/default/files/2018-06/CLSJournal_winter17_web%5B1%5D.pdf
Marshall, C. D. (2001). Beyond retribution: A New Testament vision for justice, crime, and punishment. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
Marshall, C. D. (2012). Divine justice as restorative justice. Center for Christian Ethics. https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/163072.pdf
Marshall, T. F. (1999). Restorative justice: An overview. http://www.antoniocasella.eu/restorative/Marshall_1999-b.pdf
Materni, M. (2013). Criminal punishment and the pursuit of justice. https://hls.harvard.edu/content/uploads/2011/09/michele-materni-criminal-punishment.pdf
McGeorge, J. (2016). On restorative justice, public theology and being counter-cultural. Stimulus, 23(2), 12-19. https://www.laidlaw.ac.nz/assets/Files-PDF-Word/10036-Stimulus-Vol-23-Is-2_McGeorge.pdf
Miller, R. J. (2021). Halfway home: Race, punishment, and the afterlife of mass incarceration. Little, Brown and Company.
Moore, M. S. (2010). Placing blame: A theory of the criminal law. Oxford University Press.
Morris, H. (1994). A paternalistic theory of punishment. In A. Duff & D. Garland (Eds.), A reader on punishment (pp. 92-111). Oxford University Press.
Murphy, J. G. (2007). Legal moralism and retribution revisited. Criminal Law and Philosophy, 1(1), 5-20. doi:10.1007/s11572-006-9000-3
National Association of Social Workers. (2021). Code of Ethics. https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English
New Revised Standard Version, Anglicised.(1989). National Council of Churches. http://www.ncccusa.org/newbtu/aboutnrs.html
Nozick, R. (1981). Philosophical explanations. Harvard University Press.
Nugent, W. R., Williams, M., & Umbreit, M. S. (2003). Participation in victim-offender mediation and the prevalence and severity of subsequent delinquent behavior: A meta-analysis. Utah Law Review, 1, 137-166. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.497.7446&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Payne, J. S. (2019, November 9). What MSW students learned from their denomination about mental illness [Workshop presentation]. North American Association of Christians in Social Work 69th Annual Meeting, Indianapolis, IN.
Payne, J. S. & Hays, K. (2016). A spectrum of belief: A qualitative exploration of candid discussions of clergy on mental health and healing. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 19(6), 600-612. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2016.1221916
Pettus-Davis, C. (2012). Reverse social work’s neglect of adults involved in the criminal justice system: The intersection and an agenda. Social Work Research, 36(1), 3-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svs036
Pettus-Davis, C., & Epperson, M. W. (2015). From mass incarceration to smart decarceration (Working Paper No. 4). American Academy of Social Work & Social Welfare, Grand Challenges for Social Work Initiative. https://aaswsw.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/From-Mass-Incarceration-to-Decarceration-3.24.15.pdf
Pettus-Davis, C., & Kennedy, S. (2018). Researching and responding to barriers to prisoner reentry: Early findings from a multi-state trial. Institute for Justice and Research Development. https://ijrd.csw.fsu.edu/sites/g/files/upcbnu1766/files/media/images/publication_pdfs/5Key_1st_Report_FINAL.pdf
Pfaff, J. (2017). Locked in: The true causes of mass incarceration and how to achieve real reform. Basic Books.
Prison Fellowship. (2019). A survey of Christian perceptions of incarceration and justice reform. Barna Group for Prison Fellowship. https://www.prisonfellowship.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Prison-Fellowship-Christian-Barna-Polling-Results-2019.pdf
Rice-Minus, H. (2020). What Christians think - and what the Bible says - about criminal justice reform. The Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention. https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/what-christians-think-and-what-the-bible-says-about-criminal-justice-reform/
Sarre, R., & Young, J. (2011). Christian approaches to the restorative justice movement: Observations on scripture and praxis. Contemporary Justice Review, 13(3), 345-355. DOI:10.1080/10282580.2011.589670
Schedler, G. (2011). Retributivism and fallible systems of punishment. Criminal Justice Ethics, 30(3), 240-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129X.2011.628829
Sliva, S. M., & Lambert, C. G. (2015). Restorative justice legislation in the American states: A statutory analysis of emerging legal doctrine. Journal of Policy Practice, 14, 77-95. https://njdc.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Restorative-Justice-Legislation-in-the-American-States-A-Statutory-Analysis-of-Emerging-Legal-Doctrine.pdf
Smith, P. J. (2005). A method for the madness: Restorative justice as a valid mode of punishment and an advancement of Catholic social thought. Journal of Catholic Legal Studies, 44(2), 433-459. https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/jcls/vol44/iss2/9/
Soltis, K. G. (2011). Mass incarceration and theological images of justice. Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics, 31(2), 113-130. 10.5840/jsce20113128
Stevenson, B. (2015). Just mercy: A story of justice and redemption. One World.
Strang, H., & Sherman, L. W. (2003). Repairing the harm: Victims and restorative justice. Utah Law Review, 1, 15-42. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Repairing-the-Harm%3A-Victims-and-Restorative-Justice-Strang-
Sherman/1ea2e2b9bad08ed8766ffac40f00913bfffa7e14
Strang, H. (2002). Repair or revenge: Victims and restorative justice. Clarendon Press.
Talbott, T. (1993). Punishment, forgiveness, and divine justice. Religious Studies, 29(2), 151-168. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20019603
U.S. Department of Justice. (n.d.) Our mission statement. https://www.justice.gov/about
Van Ness, D., & Strong, K. H. (1997). Restoring justice. Anderson.
van Prooijen, J-W. (2018). The moral punishment instinct: Perspectives on justice and morality. Oxford University Press.
Walen, A. (2015). Proof beyond a reasonable doubt; A balanced retributive account. Louisiana Law Review, 76(2), 355-446. https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol76/iss2/6
Walen, A. (2020). Retributive justice. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-retributive/#AppeRetrJust
Walmsley, R. (2015). World Prison Population List (12th ed.). World Prison Brief. Institute for Criminal Policy Research. https://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/wppl_12.pdf
Zehr, H. (2002). The little book of restorative justice. Good Books.
Zehr, H. (2003). Changing lenses: A new focus for crime and justice (3rd ed.). Herald Press. (Original work published in 1990).
Zehr, H. (2009). God’s justice - punishment or restoration? Zehr Institute for Restorative Justice. https://emu.edu/now/restorative-justice/2009/03/30/gods-justice-punishment-or-restoration/
Zehr Institute for Restorative Justice. (n.d.). Howard Zehr CV. https://zehr-institute.org/staff/howard-zehr/howard-zehr-cv/