An Examination of the Relationship between Religious Beliefs, Behaviors, Commitment, and Connection and Addiction among African American Women
Main Article Content
Keywords
African American, women, religiosity, addictions, mental illness
Abstract
This study examines the religious/spiritual practices of 106 African American women when addiction is present. Stratified sampling was based on addiction status: no addiction (n=58); addiction to one of either alcohol, marijuana, or cocaine (n=22); and addiction to two or more of the substances (n=26). Using items from the Religiosity Scale to assess belief in God, religious behaviors, commitment and connection, analyses revealed that the majority of the women (84%) believe God exists and is active in their lives. However not all demonstrated formal religious behaviors or have a commitment or connection to religious activities. Women addicted to two or more substances were more likely to report religious behaviors, commitment, and connection such as regular personal religious-based reading/studying and having a feeling of religious commitment compared to women with no or only one addiction. Women with co-occurring addictions may utilize religious-based practices in an attempt to alleviate their emotional pain. Further exploration of religious/spiritual practices and co-morbid substance addiction is needed, as this research may be vital to implementing effective interventions with this population.
References
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Blakey, J.M. (2016). The role of spirituality in helping African American women with histories
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Bliss, D.L. (2007). Empirical research on spirituality and alcoholism: A review of the literature.
Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 7(4), 5-25. doi: 10.1300/J160v07n04_02
Boyd, C.J. (1993). The antecedents of women’s crack cocaine abuse: Family substance abuse,
sexual abuse, depression and illicit drug use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 10(5), 433-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(93)90002-J
Brady, T.M., & Ashley, O.S. (Eds.). (2005). Women in substance abuse treatment: Results from
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of Applied Studies.
Brome, D.R., Owens, M.D., Allen, K., & Vevaina, T. (2000). An examination of spirituality
among African American women in recovery from substance abuse. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(4), 470-486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026004008
Canfield, M., Radcliffe, P., Marlow, S., Boreham, M., & Gilchrist, G. (2017). Maternal
substance use and child protection: A rapid evidence assessment of factors associated with loss of child care. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 11-27. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.05.005.
Chatters, L.M., Mattis, J.S., Woodward, A.T., Taylor, R J., Neighbors, H.W., & Grayman,
N.A. (2011). Use of ministers for serious personal problems among African Americans:
Findings from the National Survey of American Life. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 81(1), 118-127. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01079.x
Cnaan, R., Boddie, S., Handy, F., Yancey, G., & Schneider, R. (2002). The invisible caring hand: American congregations and the provision of welfare. New York: New York University Press.
Cohen, E., Feinn, R., Arias, A., & Kranzler, H.R. (2007). Alcohol treatment utilization:
Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related
Conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 86(2-3), 214-221.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.06.008
Cordington, R. Trauma, dissociation, and chronic shame - Reflections for couple and family practice: An interview with Kathy Steele. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 38(4), 669-679. https://doi.org/10.1002/anzf.1275.
Cross, D., Crow, T., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2015). Childhood trauma, PTSD, and
problematic alcohol and substance use in low-income, African American men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 44, 26-35. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.007
Curtis-Boles, H. & Jenkins-Monroe, V. (2000). Substance abuse in African American women.
Journal of Black Psychology, 26(4), 450-469.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026004007
Daniulaityte, R., & Carlson, R.G. (2011). “To numb out and start to feel nothing”: Experiences
of stress among crack-cocaine using women in a Midwestern City. Journal of Drug Issues, 41(1), 1-24.https://doi.org/10.1177/002204261104100101
Dascalu, M., Compton, W.M., Horton, J.C., & Cottler, L.B. (2001). Validity of DIS-IV in diagnosing depression and other psychiatric disorders among substance users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, CPDD Conference Abstracts, 63, S37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00133-8
Dilworth-Anderson, P., Williams, S.W., & Cooper, T. (1999). The context of experiencing emotional distress among family caregivers to elderly African Americans. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 48(4), 391-396.
doi:10.2307/585246
Ehrmin, J.T. (2002). “That feeling of not feeling”: Numbing the pain of substance-dependent
African American women. Qualitative Health Research, 12(6), 780-791. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973230201200605
Hagedorn, W.B. & Moorhead, H.J.H. (2010). The God-shaped hole: Addictive disorders
and the search for perfection. Counseling and Values, 55(1), 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.2010.tb00022.x
Jackson, M.S. (1995). Afrocentric treatment of African American women and their children in a
residential chemical dependency program. Journal of Black Studies, 26(1), 17-30.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026004008
Johnson, K.S., Elbert-Avila, K.I., & Tulsky, J.A. (2005). The influence of spiritual beliefs and
practices on the treatment preferences of African Americans: A review of the literature. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 711-719. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53224.x
Krentzman, A.R., Farkas, K.J., & Townsend, A.L. (2010). Spirituality, religiousness, and
alcoholism treatment outcomes: A comparison between Black and White participants. Alcohol Treatment Quarterly, 28(2), 128-150. doi:10.1080/07347321003648661
Mattis, J.S. (2000). African American women’s definitions of spirituality and religiosity.
Journal of Black Psychology, 26(1), 101-122.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026001006
McCabe, S.E., West, B.T., Jutkiewicz, E.M., & Boyd, C.J. (2017). Multiple DSM-5 substance
use disorders: A national study of US adults. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 32(5), e2625. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2625
Meshberg-Cohen, S., Presseau, C., Thacker, L.R., Hefner, K., Svikis, D. (2016). Posttraumatic
stress disorder, health problems, and depression among African American women in residential substance use treatment. Journal of Women’s Health, 25(7), 729-737. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2015.6328
Miller, W.R. (1998). Researching the spiritual dimensions of alcohol and other drug problems.
Addiction, 93(7), 979-990. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.9379793.x
Olthuis, J.V., Darredeau, C., & Barrett, S.P. (2013). Substance use initiation: The role of
simultaneous polysubstance use. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(1), 67-71. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00470.x
Perl, L., Bagalman, E., Fernandes-Alcantara, A.L., Heisler, E. J., McCallion, G., McCarthy, F.
X., & Sacco, L.N. (2014). Homelessness: Targeted federal programs and recent legislation. Congressional Research Service. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL30442.pdf
Perron, B.E., Mowbray, O.P., Glass, J.E., Delva, J., Vaughn, M.G., & Howard, M.O. (2009). Differences in service utilization and barriers among Blacks, Hispanics,
and Whites with drug use disorders. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and
Policy, 4(3). doi:10.1186/1747-597X-4-3
Pew Research Center. (2014). Religious Landscape Study. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from
http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/racial-and-ethnic-composition/ on August 30, 2018
Pickard, J.G. (2012). Clergy perceptions of their preparation for counseling older adults. Journal of Religion Spirituality and Aging, 24(4), 276-288.
Pickard, J.G., Inoue, M., Chadiha, L., Johnson, S. (2011). The relationship of social support to African American caregivers help-seeking for emotional problems. Social Service Review, 85(2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1086/660068
Pickard, J.G. & Tang, F.Y. (2009). Older adults seeking mental health counseling in a NORC. Research on Aging, 31(6), 638-660. doi: 10.1177/0164027509343539
Roberts, A.L., Gilman, S.E., Breslau, J., Breslau, N., Koenen, K.C. (2011). Race/ethnic
differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychology Medicine, 41(1), 71-83. doi: 10.1017/S0033291710000401
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Bucholz, K. K, Compton, W. M., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. M.
(2000). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University.
Rohrbaugh, J. & Jessor, R. (1975). Religiosity in youth: A personal control against deviant behavior. The Journal of Personality, 43(1), 136-155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
6494.1975.tb00577.x
Salas-Wright, C.P., Tirmazi, T., Lombe, M., & Nebbitt, V.E. (2015). Religiosity and antisocial
behavior: Evidence from young African American women in public housing communities. Social Work Research, 39(2), 82-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svv010
Schmidt, L., Greenfield, T., & Mulia, N. (2006). Unequal treatment: Racial and ethnic disparities
in alcoholism treatment services. Alcohol & Health, 29(1), 49-54.
Staton-Tindall, M., Duvall, J., Stevens-Watkins, D., Oser, C.B. (2013). The roles of spirituality
in the relationship between traumatic life events, mental health, and drug use among African American women from one Southern state. (2013). Substance Use & Misuse, 48(12), 1246-1257. doi: 10.3109/10826084.2013.799023
Stevens-Watkins, D., Perry, B., Harp, K. L., & Oser, C. B. (2012). Racism and illicit drug use
among African American women: The protective effects of ethnic identity, affirmation, and behavior. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(4), 471-49. doi: 10.1177/0095798412438395.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2017). Key substance use and
mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044, NSDUH Series H-52). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from https://www. samhsa.gov/data/
Sullivan, T.P., Weiss, N.H., Price, C., Pugh, N., & Hansen, N.B. (2018). Strategies for coping
with individual PTSD symptoms: Experiences of African American victims of intimate partner violence. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3), 336-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000283
Taylor, R.J., Chatters, L.M., and Levin, J. (2004). Religion in the Lives of African Americans: Social, Psychological, and Health Perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Wallace, J.M., Myers, V.L., & Osai, E.R. (N.D.) Faith matters: Race/Ethnicity, religion, and substance use. Annie E. Casey Foundation, Baltimore, MD.
Wang, P.S., Berglund, P.A., & Kessler, R.C. (2003). Patterns and correlates of contacting clergy
for mental disorders in the United States. Health Services Research, 38(2), 647-
73. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.00138
Weaver, A., Flannelly, K., Flannelly, L, & Oppenheimer, J.E. (2003). Collaboration between
clergy and mental health professionals: A review of professional health care journals from
1980 through 1999. Counseling and Values, 47, 162-171.
doi: 10.1002/j.2161-007X.2003.tb00263.x
Witbrodt, J., Mulia, N., Zemore, S.E., & Kerr, W.C. (2016). Racial/Ethnic disparities in alcohol-
related problems: differences by gender and level of heavy drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 38(6), 1662-1670. doi: 10.1111/acer.12398
Zapolski, T.C.B., Pedersen, S.L., McCarthy, D.M., & Smith, G.T. (2014). Less drinking, yet
more problems: Understanding African American drinking and related problems. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 188-223. doi: 10.1037/a0032113
Arnold, R.M., Avants, S.K., Margolin, A., & Marcotte, D. (2002). Patient attitudes concerning the inclusion of spirituality into addiction treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 23(4), 319-326. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(02)00282-9
Berkel, L.A., Armstrong, T.D., & Cokley, K.O. (2004). Similarities and differences between religiosity and spirituality in African American college students: A preliminary investigation. Counseling and Values, 49(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.2004.tb00248.x
Blakey, J.M. (2016). The role of spirituality in helping African American women with histories
of trauma and substance abuse heal and recover. Social Work & Christianity, 43(1), 40-59.
Bliss, D.L. (2007). Empirical research on spirituality and alcoholism: A review of the literature.
Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 7(4), 5-25. doi: 10.1300/J160v07n04_02
Boyd, C.J. (1993). The antecedents of women’s crack cocaine abuse: Family substance abuse,
sexual abuse, depression and illicit drug use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 10(5), 433-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(93)90002-J
Brady, T.M., & Ashley, O.S. (Eds.). (2005). Women in substance abuse treatment: Results from
the Alcohol and Drug Services Study (ADSS) (DHHS Publication No. SMA 04-3968, Analytic Series A-26). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office
of Applied Studies.
Brome, D.R., Owens, M.D., Allen, K., & Vevaina, T. (2000). An examination of spirituality
among African American women in recovery from substance abuse. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(4), 470-486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026004008
Canfield, M., Radcliffe, P., Marlow, S., Boreham, M., & Gilchrist, G. (2017). Maternal
substance use and child protection: A rapid evidence assessment of factors associated with loss of child care. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 11-27. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.05.005.
Chatters, L.M., Mattis, J.S., Woodward, A.T., Taylor, R J., Neighbors, H.W., & Grayman,
N.A. (2011). Use of ministers for serious personal problems among African Americans:
Findings from the National Survey of American Life. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 81(1), 118-127. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01079.x
Cnaan, R., Boddie, S., Handy, F., Yancey, G., & Schneider, R. (2002). The invisible caring hand: American congregations and the provision of welfare. New York: New York University Press.
Cohen, E., Feinn, R., Arias, A., & Kranzler, H.R. (2007). Alcohol treatment utilization:
Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related
Conditions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 86(2-3), 214-221.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.06.008
Cordington, R. Trauma, dissociation, and chronic shame - Reflections for couple and family practice: An interview with Kathy Steele. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 38(4), 669-679. https://doi.org/10.1002/anzf.1275.
Cross, D., Crow, T., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2015). Childhood trauma, PTSD, and
problematic alcohol and substance use in low-income, African American men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 44, 26-35. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.007
Curtis-Boles, H. & Jenkins-Monroe, V. (2000). Substance abuse in African American women.
Journal of Black Psychology, 26(4), 450-469.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026004007
Daniulaityte, R., & Carlson, R.G. (2011). “To numb out and start to feel nothing”: Experiences
of stress among crack-cocaine using women in a Midwestern City. Journal of Drug Issues, 41(1), 1-24.https://doi.org/10.1177/002204261104100101
Dascalu, M., Compton, W.M., Horton, J.C., & Cottler, L.B. (2001). Validity of DIS-IV in diagnosing depression and other psychiatric disorders among substance users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, CPDD Conference Abstracts, 63, S37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00133-8
Dilworth-Anderson, P., Williams, S.W., & Cooper, T. (1999). The context of experiencing emotional distress among family caregivers to elderly African Americans. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 48(4), 391-396.
doi:10.2307/585246
Ehrmin, J.T. (2002). “That feeling of not feeling”: Numbing the pain of substance-dependent
African American women. Qualitative Health Research, 12(6), 780-791. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973230201200605
Hagedorn, W.B. & Moorhead, H.J.H. (2010). The God-shaped hole: Addictive disorders
and the search for perfection. Counseling and Values, 55(1), 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.2010.tb00022.x
Jackson, M.S. (1995). Afrocentric treatment of African American women and their children in a
residential chemical dependency program. Journal of Black Studies, 26(1), 17-30.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026004008
Johnson, K.S., Elbert-Avila, K.I., & Tulsky, J.A. (2005). The influence of spiritual beliefs and
practices on the treatment preferences of African Americans: A review of the literature. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 711-719. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53224.x
Krentzman, A.R., Farkas, K.J., & Townsend, A.L. (2010). Spirituality, religiousness, and
alcoholism treatment outcomes: A comparison between Black and White participants. Alcohol Treatment Quarterly, 28(2), 128-150. doi:10.1080/07347321003648661
Mattis, J.S. (2000). African American women’s definitions of spirituality and religiosity.
Journal of Black Psychology, 26(1), 101-122.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026001006
McCabe, S.E., West, B.T., Jutkiewicz, E.M., & Boyd, C.J. (2017). Multiple DSM-5 substance
use disorders: A national study of US adults. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 32(5), e2625. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2625
Meshberg-Cohen, S., Presseau, C., Thacker, L.R., Hefner, K., Svikis, D. (2016). Posttraumatic
stress disorder, health problems, and depression among African American women in residential substance use treatment. Journal of Women’s Health, 25(7), 729-737. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2015.6328
Miller, W.R. (1998). Researching the spiritual dimensions of alcohol and other drug problems.
Addiction, 93(7), 979-990. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.9379793.x
Olthuis, J.V., Darredeau, C., & Barrett, S.P. (2013). Substance use initiation: The role of
simultaneous polysubstance use. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(1), 67-71. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00470.x
Perl, L., Bagalman, E., Fernandes-Alcantara, A.L., Heisler, E. J., McCallion, G., McCarthy, F.
X., & Sacco, L.N. (2014). Homelessness: Targeted federal programs and recent legislation. Congressional Research Service. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL30442.pdf
Perron, B.E., Mowbray, O.P., Glass, J.E., Delva, J., Vaughn, M.G., & Howard, M.O. (2009). Differences in service utilization and barriers among Blacks, Hispanics,
and Whites with drug use disorders. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and
Policy, 4(3). doi:10.1186/1747-597X-4-3
Pew Research Center. (2014). Religious Landscape Study. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from
http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/racial-and-ethnic-composition/ on August 30, 2018
Pickard, J.G. (2012). Clergy perceptions of their preparation for counseling older adults. Journal of Religion Spirituality and Aging, 24(4), 276-288.
Pickard, J.G., Inoue, M., Chadiha, L., Johnson, S. (2011). The relationship of social support to African American caregivers help-seeking for emotional problems. Social Service Review, 85(2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1086/660068
Pickard, J.G. & Tang, F.Y. (2009). Older adults seeking mental health counseling in a NORC. Research on Aging, 31(6), 638-660. doi: 10.1177/0164027509343539
Roberts, A.L., Gilman, S.E., Breslau, J., Breslau, N., Koenen, K.C. (2011). Race/ethnic
differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychology Medicine, 41(1), 71-83. doi: 10.1017/S0033291710000401
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Bucholz, K. K, Compton, W. M., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. M.
(2000). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University.
Rohrbaugh, J. & Jessor, R. (1975). Religiosity in youth: A personal control against deviant behavior. The Journal of Personality, 43(1), 136-155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
6494.1975.tb00577.x
Salas-Wright, C.P., Tirmazi, T., Lombe, M., & Nebbitt, V.E. (2015). Religiosity and antisocial
behavior: Evidence from young African American women in public housing communities. Social Work Research, 39(2), 82-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svv010
Schmidt, L., Greenfield, T., & Mulia, N. (2006). Unequal treatment: Racial and ethnic disparities
in alcoholism treatment services. Alcohol & Health, 29(1), 49-54.
Staton-Tindall, M., Duvall, J., Stevens-Watkins, D., Oser, C.B. (2013). The roles of spirituality
in the relationship between traumatic life events, mental health, and drug use among African American women from one Southern state. (2013). Substance Use & Misuse, 48(12), 1246-1257. doi: 10.3109/10826084.2013.799023
Stevens-Watkins, D., Perry, B., Harp, K. L., & Oser, C. B. (2012). Racism and illicit drug use
among African American women: The protective effects of ethnic identity, affirmation, and behavior. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(4), 471-49. doi: 10.1177/0095798412438395.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2017). Key substance use and
mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044, NSDUH Series H-52). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from https://www. samhsa.gov/data/
Sullivan, T.P., Weiss, N.H., Price, C., Pugh, N., & Hansen, N.B. (2018). Strategies for coping
with individual PTSD symptoms: Experiences of African American victims of intimate partner violence. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(3), 336-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000283
Taylor, R.J., Chatters, L.M., and Levin, J. (2004). Religion in the Lives of African Americans: Social, Psychological, and Health Perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Wallace, J.M., Myers, V.L., & Osai, E.R. (N.D.) Faith matters: Race/Ethnicity, religion, and substance use. Annie E. Casey Foundation, Baltimore, MD.
Wang, P.S., Berglund, P.A., & Kessler, R.C. (2003). Patterns and correlates of contacting clergy
for mental disorders in the United States. Health Services Research, 38(2), 647-
73. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.00138
Weaver, A., Flannelly, K., Flannelly, L, & Oppenheimer, J.E. (2003). Collaboration between
clergy and mental health professionals: A review of professional health care journals from
1980 through 1999. Counseling and Values, 47, 162-171.
doi: 10.1002/j.2161-007X.2003.tb00263.x
Witbrodt, J., Mulia, N., Zemore, S.E., & Kerr, W.C. (2016). Racial/Ethnic disparities in alcohol-
related problems: differences by gender and level of heavy drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 38(6), 1662-1670. doi: 10.1111/acer.12398
Zapolski, T.C.B., Pedersen, S.L., McCarthy, D.M., & Smith, G.T. (2014). Less drinking, yet
more problems: Understanding African American drinking and related problems. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 188-223. doi: 10.1037/a0032113